EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA THROUGH AGES Pt.I-Education in Ancient India

 *EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA THROUGH AGES & TRUE STORY OF TRAGEDY OF NALANDA*

(by Ved Pal, IRSE, former Chief Administrative Officer, Ministry of Rlys, Govt. of India)

1. EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

India is recognised as one of the oldest civilisations of the world. Historically, India was a centre of higher learning and education has maintained enormous significance in Indian civilisation from the Vedic times. Gurukuls and ashrams were the primary places of learning. Their impact on development and literature was profound, fostering intellectual growth, producing seminal literary works, and preserving ancient texts through meticulous scholarship. Since thousands of years, thousands of Rishis (sages) and the Gurus imparted knowledge to shishyas or sons with tradition of remembrance generally through shlokas. For hundreds and thousands of years before the Vedas were compiled, there were shrutis (what is heard). This is the reason why when one listens to Sanskrit chants from the Vedas and other scriptures, the positive energy is added and the aura is energised.

Education policy in ancient India in its traditional form was closely related to religion. Over a while, two systems of education developed- the Vedic and the Buddhist. Vedic system is further subdivided into Brahminic and post-Vedic.

Vedic Period: In this period, the gurukuls were the centres of higher education. The widespread policy of the Vedic tradition followed the norms as laid down in the Vedas and Smritis. In later Vedic period and during Mahabharat era, students in groups, stayed at the Guru’s ashrams until their education was completed. Bigger Gurukuls served as universities i.e. centres of higher education. In addition to Gurukuls and universities, temples and mutts emerged as learning centres. Preservation of ancient culture, character building, study of scriptures, development of personality, religious duties, inculcation of spirit of individual roles towards family and society, discipline and self-dependence were the key factors while imparting education.

Buddhist period: In this period, monasteries emerged as the centres of learning. The study of the Buddhist texts took place at these centres. Monasteries attracted many foreign students from China, Nepal, Tibet, etc. Veda, Vedang, Lokayat, Astronomy, Sanskrit and Pali literature were part of the curriculum in the institutions of learning in ancient India.

Many diverse subjects were taught in ancient Indian universities. In fact, India only had universities where students from all over world came for education. There are authentic details of subjects that were taught in these universities. During Pala dynasty itself about thirty universities were set up between 6th century CE to 8th century CE. It is estimated that more than 40 universities existed in India, but details of about 24 universities are only available. Many more ancient universities are being discovered.

1.1 SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN ANCIENT UNIVERSITIES & GURUKULS

Following disciplines were taught in our Gurukuls (in the Sanatan culture)

• Antriksh Vidya (Space Science)

• Srishti Vidya (Cosmoligy)

• Jal Vidya (Water)

• Vayu Vidya (Wind)

• Prithvi Vidya (Environment)

• Surya Vidya (Solar Study)

• Chandra and Lok Vidya (Lunar Study)

• Megh Vidya (Weather Forecast)

• Khagol Vigyan (Astronomy)

• Aakarshan Vidya (Gravity)

• Mathematics

• Philosophy

• Metaphysics

• Niti Shastra (Political Science, Administration and Statesmanship)

• Nyay Shastra (Law)

• Vyakaran (Grammar)

• Tark Shastra (Logic, Reasoning, Argumentation)

• Agni Vidya (Heat & Metallurgy)

• Bhugol Vidya (Geography)

• Bhoogarbh Vidya (Geology, Mineralogy & Mining)

• Prakash Vidya (Light Energy)

• Kaal Vidya (Time studies)

• Sanchaar Vidya (Communication)

• Vimaan Vidya 

• Yaan Vidya (Mechanics)

• Jalayan Vidya (Water Vessels)

• Vehicle Designing

• Dhanurvidya (Self Defence & Warfrae)

• Agneya Astra Vidya (Arms & Ammunition)

• Varta/Vyapaar Vidya (Business & Commerce)

• Dhaatu Urja Vidya (Battery energy)

• Vaastukaar Vidya (Architecture)

• Jeevavigyaan Vidya (Biology, Zoology, Botany)

• Chikitsa (Medicine)

• Krishi Vidya (Agriculture)

• Van Vidya (Forestry)

• Baagvaani (Horticulture)

• Pashu Palan {Animal Husbandry) and Pakshi Paalan (Bird Keeping)

• Gaushala Management (Cow Breeding)

• Ratn Vidya (Gemstones and Metals) and Ratankar (Gems & Jewellery Designing)

• Yagna Vidya (Materials)

• Jal Marg (Waterways Management)

• Vaahan Vidya (Driving)

• Laghu (Metallurgy & Blacksmith)

• Lekha (Accountancy)

• Rajjukar (Logistics)

• Other basic trades lke Kumbhkari (Pottery) etc.

All the above disciplines were not taught in all the universities, Mutts or Gurukuls through all the periods, but at different institutions during one or other time period.

1.2 ANCIENT UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA

As already mentioned, during Pala dynasty itself about thirty universities were set up between 6th century CE to 8th century CE. A large number of universities existed in India, but details of about 24 universities are only available. (770 CE to 810 CE) by Maharaja Dharmapala, the second emperor of the Pala Empire emperor of the Pala Empire. Following are names of important universities of ancient India, that have been discovered so far:

(i) Ujjaini University: (c. 1000 BCE – 10th century CE) 

One university that simply stands out for its academic output in astronomy and mathematics is Ujjaini (also called Ujjain), Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. This university was the most widely recognized seat of all art forms, sports, science, literature and astronomical calculation. It is believed that around 3000 years ago Guru Sandipan, moved to Ujjayini from Kashi, and it was in Ujjayini , in his Ashram his disciples Lord Krishna, Balram and Sudama were initiated into the learning of Vedas and Vedanta. The torch of learning has been burning unabated since. During the Mauryan period around 4th century BCE, students from all over the world came to Ujjayini in pursuit of knowledge. By the end of the 4th century CE under the Gupta king Vikramaditya, the glory of this seat of learning spread farther. It reached its pinnacle of fame during the reign of king Asoka and Samvat Pravartak, King Vikramaditya Chandragupta II, who promoted Sanskrit over Prakrat.

This University was equipped with an elaborate observatory and stood on the zero meridians of longitude of those times. Brahmagupta was among the most celebrated astronomers of Ujjaini university who continued the tradition of Varahamihira and made significant contributions to mathematics. He worked on trigonometrical formulae, quadratic equations, area of a cyclic quadrilateral, arithmetic progression, and improved Aryabhata’s sine tables. In his treatise Brahmasphutasiddhanta, he was the first to treat zero as a number in its own right, rather than as simply a placeholder digit. Brahmagupta’s works reached the court of Khalifa al-Mansur in Baghdad and played a pathbreaking role in making the Arabs conversant with Indian astronomy and mathematics. Later, this knowledge was transmitted to Europe. The tradition of Brahmagupta was continued by Bhaskara II, also called Bhaskaracharya who became the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjaini. 

Bhaskaracharya wrote the famous Siddhantasiromani and Lilavati. JJ O’Connor and EF Robertson (creators of the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive; co-authors of over 100 research articles, mainly on mathematics; co-authors of 17 textbooks) have said in their paper for the School of Mathematics and Statistics that “Bhaskaracharya reached an understanding of the number systems and solving equations, which was not to be achieved in Europe for several centuries.” He was hailed as the first mathematician to write a work with full and systematic use of the decimal number system.

Bhaskaracharya is also considered the founder of differential calculus, who applied it centuries before Newton and Leibniz. He too had a profound impact on Islamic mathematicians just like the earlier acharyas of Ujjaini.

The Paramara dynasty's influence in Malwa ended in 946 CE, leading to a period of decline and loss of Ujjayini's ancient glory due to repeated attacks. The shifting of the capital to Gwalior also contributed to a decline in Ujjain's commercial importance.

(ii) Varanasi: (1000 BCE to modern times) By 1000 BCE, Kashi was well established as the seat of learning of philosophy, which we know today as Hindu scriptures It is mentioned in the Vedas, Puranas, the epics Ramayana and Mahabharat and also many Buddhist and Jain texts. In ancient India, Kashi was a great centre of education not only for the Hindus but for other religions such as Buddhism and Jainism. Students were taught the Vedas, Upanishads and other schools of philosophy. The city of Varanasi is also associated with famous religious personalities such as Panini, Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhavachrya and Gorakshanath.

(iii) Takshshila (600 BCE -500 BCE) was a center of the Gurukula system of Brahmanical education in Taxila, Gandhara, in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, near the bank of the Indus River. It was established as a centre of education in religious topics. It started as a Vedic seat of learning.

(iv) Kanchi matha: (482 BCE – till date) is a Hindu monastic institution founded in 482 BCE by the Hindu saint and commentator Adi Sankaracharya (509 BCE - 477 BCE) in Kanchipuram, Karnataka. According to the Sri Kanchi matha documents, the matha relocated completely to Kumbakonam in the mid-18th century to escape wars and persecution, returning to Kanchi in the 19th century due to "fear of Muslim atrocities" from Nawab of Arcot, Mysore's Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. The matha offers Vedic studies to male Brahmin students in a number of pathasalas. Under the leadership of Jayendra Saraswati, the peetham took a more liberal stance, also reaching out to a non-Brahmin audience.

(v) ⁠Telhare (1st Century CE – 12th century CE)

(also called Telhara and formerly known as Telāḍhaka) was a Buddhist monastic establishment in Nalanda district of Bihar, India dating back to the 1st-century CE and active till at least the 12th-century CE. It is notable as it has been mentioned in the travelogues of Chinese monks including Xuanzang. It has been mentioned as Teladhaka in the writings of the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang, who visited the place in the 7th century CE. Historian D R Patil writes about Hiuen Tsang’s description of Telhara. “Hiuen Tsang describes Telhara or Tilas-akiya as containing a number of monasteries or viharas, about seven in number, accommodating about 1,000 monks studying in Mahayan. These buildings, he says, had courtyards, three-storeyed pavilions, towers, gates and were crowned by cupolas with hanging bells. The doors and windows, pillars and beams have bas relieves (sculptures in guilded copper). In the middle vihara is a statue of Tara Bodhisatva and to the right (is) one of Avlokiteshwar”. During excavation work, the ASI team stumbled upon a 1.5-foot-thick layer of ash. This suggests that the Telhara University was destroyed and burnt like Nalanda and Vikramshila Universities. Further excavations and studies are going on by the Archaeological Survey of India.

(vi) Nagarjunakonda: (C 1st century CE – 4th/11th century CE) Nagarjunakonda means "Nagarjuna's Hill;" it is named after the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna himself, who is traditionally believed to have founded the site in the first or second century A.D. During the early centuries, the site housed more than 30 Buddhist monasteries was once the location of a large Buddhist monastic university complex, attracting students from as far as China, Gandhara, Bengal and Sri Lanka. Some brick shrines were constructed in the Krishna River valley between 7th and 12th centuries, when the region was controlled by the Chalukyas of Vengi. Later, the site formed the part of the Kakatiya kingdom and the Delhi Sultanate. It is one of India's richest Buddhist sites, and now lies almost entirely under the lake created by the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam. With the construction of the dam, the archaeological relics at Nagarjunakonda were submerged, and had to be excavated and transferred to higher land, which has become an island.

(vii) Abhayagiri Vihāra (2nd Century BCE- 13th century CE) Abhayagiri Vihara was a major monastery site of Mahayana, Theravada and Vajrayana Buddhism that was situated in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is one of the most extensive ruins in the world and one of the most sacred Buddhist pilgrimage cities in the nation. Historically it was a great monastic centre as well as a royal capital, with magnificent monasteries rising to many stories "Abhayagiri", one of seventeen such religious units in Anuradhapura and the largest of its five major viharas. One of the focal points of the complex is an ancient stupa, the Abhayagiri Dagaba. Surrounding the humped dagaba, Abhayagiri Vihara was a seat of the Northern Monastery, or Uttara Vihara and the original custodian of the Tooth relic (relic of the tooth of the Buddha) in the island. Founded in the 2nd century BC, it had grown into an international institution by the 1st century AD, attracting scholars from all over the world and encompassing all shades of Buddhist philosophy. Its influence can be traced to other parts of the world, through branches established elsewhere. Thus, the Abhayagiri Vihara developed as a great institution vis‑a‑vis the Mahavihara and the Jetavana Buddhist monastic sects in the ancient Sri Lankan capital of Anuradhapura. the Abhayagiri monastery advanced in prestige and wealth under the patronage of King Gajabāhu I (AD 113–135). Abhayagiri continued to flourish until Anurādhapura was abandoned in the 13th century. Even then, two of its main colleges continued to operate until the 16th century.

(viii) ⁠Pushpagiri (3rd century CE- 11th century CE) Pushpagiri University was an ancient Buddhist monastery and university in the Kalinga kingdom of India, which is now the state of Odisha. It was a major center of learning and an important Buddhist site and was spread across the Jajpur and Cuttack districts. The Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentioned Pushpagiri in his writings. Pushpagiri University was not just a center of Buddhist learning but also a hub for intellectual exchange. Scholars from across India and beyond came here to study a variety of subjects, ranging from philosophy to medicine and the arts. The teachings at Pushpagiri played a vital role in spreading Buddhist thought across Asia. Monks trained at Pushpagiri traveled to places like China, Japan, and Indonesia, helping to spread Mahayana and Vajrayana teachings. This cross-cultural exchange made Pushpagiri a crucial link in the chain of Buddhist propagation. Archaeological excavations in the Langudi Hills revealed the remains of the monastery. The remnants may still be seen above the Langudi hills, some 90 kilometres from the Mahanadi delta, in the Odisha districts of Jajpur and Cuttack. The entire university that was spread over three campuses on the tops of three adjacent hills, Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, and Udayagiri, had multiple stupas, monasteries, temples, and sculptures in the Gupta architectural style. Udayagiri is an Odisha Buddhist complex that, along with Udayagiri and Lalitgiri, forms Pushpagiri University and is home to several notable stupas and temples (viharas). According to an epigraphic artefact discovered in the region, Udayagiri was known in the past as 'Madhavapura Mahavihara. Like many other ancient centers of learning, Pushpagiri faced decline due to foreign invasions.

*(ix) Jetavanaramaya (c. 310 CE - 11th century CE):* Jetavanaramaya is a significant ancient stupa and monastery complex located in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It was a major center of Buddhist learning and housed around 10,000 number of monks. Its stupa was 122 metres high, being world's tallest stupa with a diameter of 367 feet at its base and the third tallest structure in the world (only behind the two great pyramids: Great Pyramid of Giza and Pyramid of Khafre) when it was built by King Mahasena of Anuradhapura (CE 273–301). He initiated the construction of the stupa and his son Kithsirimevan completed the construction of the stupa, With the destruction and abandonment of Anuradhapura kingdom in the 11th century, the stupa with others was covered by jungle.

*(x) Nalanda (427 CE- 1197 CE):* was a renowned Buddhist mahavihara (great monastery) in ancient and medieval Magadha (modern-day Bihar), ", it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now Rajgir), roughly 90 kilometres southeast of Pataliputra (now Patna) in eastern India. Widely considered to be among the greatest centres of learning in the ancient world, and often referred to as "the world's first residential university Operating for almost a thousand years from 427 CE until around 1400 CE. Nalanda played a vital role in promoting the patronage of arts and academics during the 5th and 6th century CE, a period that has since been described as the "Golden Age of India" by scholars. Nalanda was established by emperor Kumaragupta I of the Gupta Empire around 427 CE. Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji burned the university and its vast library in 1193 (1197 according to some sources) ending its existence. More details about this university will be given at the end of this article.

*(xi) ⁠Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth (c. 600 CE):* Nagarjunakonda or Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth is named after Nagarjuna who was a Buddhist philosopher from Andhra Pradesh in ancient India. This ancient university was located on the Krishna River's banks. It was at its peak in the seventh and eighth centuries. Students from other countries have come to study here. Nagarjunakonda, also known as Vijayapuri, was the capital of the Ikshvaku Kingdom. For almost 5 centuries, this historic city was one of the most prominent Buddhist centers in South India. The multi-story library of Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth housed manuscripts pertaining to various fields of knowledge ranging from medicine, science, philosophy, mineralogy, geography, and Buddhist teachings. students from Kashmir, Gandhara, China, Sri Lanka, and Assam came here to study. It had a vast amphitheater with excellent acousticsroyal baths, quays, and bathing ghats along the river, as well as a well-designed drainage system. Scholars from Sri Lanka, China, and other countries came for further education. it is now almost entirely submerged beneath the Nagarjunasagar Dam.

*(xii) Vallabhi (600 CE- 1200 CE):* Valabhi University was a major Buddhist study center between 600 and 1400 CE. It was a major international trade port in Saurashtra; nowadays, it is known as Vallabhipur, and it is located in the Bhavnagar region of Gujarat in western India. built by Bhattarka, the Maitraka King (Maitraka kings, who ruled over the country and acted as patrons to the university). During the period 480-775 CE, Valabhi was the capital of the Maitraka kingdom. The patron kings fell victim to an Arab assault in 775 CE and the university suffered a brief setback as a result of this. Since then Maitraka dynasty's successors continued to support it with generous donations. Apart from religious sciences, the other courses available were Niti (Political Science, Statesmanship), Varta (Business, Agriculture), Administration, Philosophy and Religious Thought (especially Buddhist philosophy), Accounting, Economics, and Law. It housed a large library. The education provided was of the highest calibre. It drew students from all over, as well as neighbouring countries. Students who earned a degree from this university were held in high regard throughout the country and were appointed to high administrative positions in kings' courts. Xuanzang, a Chinese pilgrim, came to Valabhi in the middle of 7th century, while Yijing came at the end of the 7th century. The institution, according to Yijing, was on par with the Buddhist monastic center of Nalanda. In the middle of the seventh century, when Xuanzang visited the institution, there were about 6000 students studying there.

*(xiii) Sharada Peeth (6th and 12th centuries CE):* Sharada Peeth is a ruined Hindu temple and ancient centre of learning located in the Neelum Valley of Pakistan Occupied Kashmir in the disputed. Between the 6th and 12th centuries CE, it was among the most prominent temple universities in the Indian subcontinent. Known in particular for its library, stories recount scholars travelling long distances to access its texts. It played a key role in the development and popularisation of the Sharada script in North India, causing the script to be named after it, and Kashmir to acquire the moniker "Sharada Desh", meaning "country of Sharada". It was probably commissioned by Lalitaditya Muktapida (724 CE–760 CE) Sharada Peeth is located approximately 150 kilometres from Muzaffarabad, the capital of POK, and 130 kilometres from Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. It is 10 kilometres away from the Line of Control and is situated at an altitude of 1,981 metres above MSL along the Neelum River in the village of Sharda, in the valley of Mount Harmukh, believed by Kashmiri Pandits to be the abode of Shiva. No research work has been done at this site as it is controlled by Pakistan. In an article published by ANI, it was reported, "Pakistan is damaging walls of the cultural Heritage site 'Sharda Peeth' located in Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir. Pakistan is deliberately damaging some walls of Sharda Peeth for the expansion of a coffee house for soldiers inside PoK.”

*(xiv) Odantapuri (800 CE – 1197 CE):* Odantapuri was a Buddhist monastery and university in what is now Bihar, India. It was established in the 8th century by the Pala ruler Gopala. The monastery was built with gold that was said to have been obtained miraculously by a Buddhist. Odantapuri was part of a network of five Mahaviharas in eastern India. The others were Nalanda, Vikramashila, Somapura, and Jagaddala. It was destroyed in 1193 by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar. The monks who survived the massacre fled to Nepal and Tibet.

*(xv) ⁠Somapura Mahavihara (8th century CE - 12th century CE):* It is located at Paharpur in Naogaon District of Bangladesh. A number of monasteries grew up during the Pāla period in ancient India in the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent together forming a network of interlinked group of institutions and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them. Somapura Mahavihara was one of them. Dharmapala, the ruler of the Pala dynasty, established Somapura University in the late 8th century. Many Tibetan monks visited the Somapura between the 9th and 12th centuries. The downfall of the establishment, by desertion or destruction took place sometime in the midst of the widespread unrest and displacement of population consequent on the Muslim invasion.

*(xvi) ⁠Bikrampur Vihara (8th century CE):* Bikrampur University was an ancient university in Munshiganj, Bengal, which is now part of Bangladesh. This is one of the thirty viharas built by Emperor Dharmapala during his regime and was established in the late 7th century by Maharaja Dharmapala, the second emperor of the Pala Empire emperor of the Pala Empire. Bikrampur was connected to Atiśa, an important figure in Tibetan Buddhism. During the time of Atiśa, this region was the center of Buddhist education and some 8,000 students and professors came to study at Bikrampur from as far as China, Tibet, Nepal and Thailand. 

*(xvii) ⁠Morena Golden Temple (800 CE – 1200 CE):*   The Morena Golden Triangle University was a major center of education in the Chambal division of Madhya Pradesh, India. during the 8th century. In the 8th to 12th centuries, the three regions Mitawali (Chaunsath Yogini), Padawali, and Bateshwar were described as a golden triangle, where there was a university. This university has been the center of education since ancient times, Hinduism, mathematics, and astrology were taught here, that too with the help of the sun. Teachers banked upon the rays and shades of the sun for certain calculations as the rays of sun falling on the temple in distinct designs and patterns due to circular structure of the temple.                 Morena golden triangle University was built by the Gurjara Pratiharas, and then it was renovated by the Kachchpaghat rulers. The Bateshwar temple was the center of the Golden Triangle University and the Chausath Yogin Temple for astrology and mathematics. and its structure was similar to the old Parliament of Delhi. The temples were destroyed by Islamic invaders.  

*(xviii) ⁠Vikramshila (800 CE -1203 CE):* Vikramshila Mahavidyalaya, also known as Vikramashila University, was a Buddhist university in ancient India. It was located in what is now the Bhagalpur district of Bihar. The university was founded by King Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty in the late 8th or early 9th century. Philosophy, Grammar, Metaphysics, Indian logic, and Buddhist tantra were subjects taught at Vikramashila Mahavidyalaya. The university was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1193. The remains of the university can still be seen today.

*(xix) ⁠Kanthalloor Sala (1000 CE- 1300 CE):* Kanthalloor Sala (also known as Sarva Chattanamadam) was an ancient university in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. It was known as the "Nalanda of the South" and was a center of higher education that taught over 64 subjects that included astrology, chemistry, music, martial arts, and anti-theism. The university was located near the Killi river (Killi river, also called Killiyar, the main tributary of Karamana River, originates at Theerthankara close to Panavur in Nedumangad taluk of Thiruvananthapuram district). This university was known for its strict educational and disciplinary code and attracted students from as far as Sri Lanka. It was a model for ancient centers of learning. It was destroyed in a battle between the Chera and Chola dynasties.

*(xx) ⁠Nadia University (11th century - 16th century):* was founded by Lakshmana Sena of Sena dynasty in Nadia, Bengal and was one of the major centres of Hindu learning during the period from 13th century CE to the 16th century CE in the Indian subcontinent. Like the Ancient Mithila University, it also became famous for the study of Nyaya Shastra in region of Bengal. Bakhtiyar Khilji, conquered Nadia in 1202 and destroyed the city, marking the beginning of Muslim rule in Bengal. Along with the city, the university was also destroyed, and its library, which contained a vast collection of manuscripts, was burned.

*(xxi) Jagaddala Mahavihara (late 11th century - 1207):* It was a Buddhist monastery and seat of learning in Varendra, a geographical unit in present north Bengal in Bangladesh. It was founded by the later kings of the Pāla dynasty, probably Ramapala (c. 1077-1120). Jagaddala Mahavihara, Vikramashila, Nalanda Somapura and Odantapura formed a network. All of them were under state supervision and a system of co-ordination existed among them forming a network as interlinked group of institutions.It was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them. It was destroyed by Muslim in 1207.

*(xxii) ⁠Mithila (12th to 15th century CE):* Ancient Mithila University was a center of learning in the Indian subcontinent that was famous for its studies in logical sciences and Nyaya Shastra. It was a prominent seat of Brahmanical education and was spread out across many Ashrams and Gurukuls. The university was established through philosophical conferences held at the court of King Janak of Mithila. The university was a prominent center of Vedic learning that expanded eastwards along the Ganges plain. The university was famous for its studies in Nyaya Shastra (a system of logic and epistemology) and logical sciences, which includes the study of reasoning, logic, and argumentation. The university was a center for the development of Indian philosophy, logic, and mathematics.

*(xxiii) Sunethradevi Pirivena, Sri Lanka (1415 – modern times)* Sunethradevi Pirivena was an ancient Pirivena, a center of Buddhist learning, in Sri Lanka, founded around 1415 AD. It's located in Pepiliyana and was built by King Parakramabahu VI to honor his mother, Queen Sunethradevi. While not a traditional university, it served as a significant institution for Buddhist studies. A Pirivena is a monastic institution for Buddhist learning, typically including a monastery, library, and classrooms. it was a prominent institution within the broader network of Buddhist learning in Sri Lanka during its time. The Portuguese conquer the island in 15th century and managed to convert King Dharmapala of Kotte, the apostate king, eventually stopped state funding for these Buddhist educational institutions. However, system continued with private funding.

*(xxiv) Tawang Monastery: (CE 1680- Present times)* Though it may not qualify as ancient university since it was established in 17th century, Tawang Monastery is a significant Buddhist institution and a center of learning Located in Arunachal Pradesh and had started functioning like any ancient university of past. It was founded by Mera Lama Lotey Gyamcho, with the blessing of the 5th Dalai Lama. At present it is the largest monastery in India and houses monks, a library, a museum, and a school. a library with valuable manuscripts, a museum, and a school for basic education, besides. houses for monks.